THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF HADITH

Hadith is a verbal noun derived from the Arabic root verb hadatha which means to occur, to relate, to speak, and to report. Thus, the term Hadith literally means "communication, story, conversation: religious or secular, historical or recent." The term Hadith in its literal sense appears both in the Qur'anic texts and Hadith literature. For example, in the Qur'an we come across this citation:
"Has the Hadith (story) of Musa reached you."

In the Hadith literature it is reported that the Prophet Muhammad (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) said: "The best Hadith (communication) is the Book of Allah."

It may be appropriate to point out that the term Hadith also has the connotation of 'new' being used as an antonym of 'old' (qadim). The technical meaning of the term Hadith has been defined by the fuqaha' (Muslim jurists) as "the words and deeds of the Prophet Muhammad (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam)", while the muhaddithun (scholars of Hadith) define it as "the words, practices, tacit approval of the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam), or description of his sifat (features) meaning his physical appearance."

Hadith and Sunnah
Closely connected to the term Hadith is the term Sunnah. Sunnah (pl. Sunan) is a verbal noun derived from the Arabic root verb sanna which means to introduce, prescribe or establish. The technical meaning of the term Sunnah is the mode of life of the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam).

The two terms Hadith and Sunnah are translated as Traditions of the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam). They are often interchangeably used but nevertheless there is a subtle difference between the two terms. In short, Sunnah represents what was practised by the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam), while hadith is the record of what the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) said and practised. Thus, a Hadith may not contain any Sunnah as in the following example:
"The best of you is the one who studies the Qur'an and teaches it".

Or, on the other hand, it may contain one or more Sunnah as, for example, in the Ahadith (sing. Hadith) dealing with matters pertaining to the mode of 'ibadah (worship) like the Sunnah of the Salaah (obligatory prayers), the rites of Hajj (pilgrimage), the etiquette of siyaam (fasting) etc.

Muslim jurists define Sunnah as "what has been transmitted on the authority of the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) which includes his saying, practice and tacit approval." The muhaddithun (scholars of Hadith) define this term as "that which has been reported on the authority of the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) and includes his saying, practice, and tacit approval, and, inter alia, description of his physical appearance, moral character and way of life, before prophethood was confirmed upon him or after that.

In effect, Sunnah is primarily of three kinds:

1. Al-Qawl i.e. verbal teaching of the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam). For example, Hadrat Abu Hurayrah (Radhiallaahu Anhu) reported that the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) said: 'The best house, amid the Muslim community, is one in which an orphan is treated well, and the worst house is one in which an orphan is ill-treated."
2. Al-fi'l i.e. practical teaching done by the Prophet through practical demonstration like the method of performing the Wudhu (ablution), Salah (obligatory prayers), the mode of siyam (fasting.) and the per performance of hajj (pilgrimage).
3. Al-Taqrir i.e. tacit approval which may be explained as an act done in the presence of the Prophet (Alayhis salaam)(Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) and he either approved of it or censured it. For example, the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) forbade his Companions (Radhiallaahu Anhu) from wearing silk and gold rings.

Preservation of Hadith

A. During the Lifetime of the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam).
The Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) encouraged his Companions (Radhiallaahu Anhum) to acquire and teach his Hadith/Sunnah to others. This resulted in their taking a keen interest in the life of the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) and thus they memorized everything that they heard from him and saw him do.

The course of study which the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) prescribed for the Ashab al-Suffah (Companions of the Platform) included, inter alia, the study of the Qur'an, his Sunnah and the art of writing. The Prophet when appointing officials gave preference to those who were learned in the Qur'an as well as the Hadith.

The Companions (Radhiallaahu Anhum) did not only commit many of the Ahadith to memory, but, some of them went a step further and recorded them in writing them on stone-tablets, skin, bones and on some form of paper as well. Each of these written documents came to be known as a Sahifah.

The Prophet's (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) written documents in the form of letters inviting the chieftains and Kings to Islam, the treaties and agreements he concluded with the different Arabian tribes, Jews and Christians in Arabia; and the letters addressed to the Muslim governors detailing the rules for Zakaat and other legal matters, all fall under the category of the teaching of his Sunnah through the written medium. Some of the Companions (Radhiallaahu Anhum) had written down the Ahadith. The scribes of the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) for example, Abd Rafi'i, 'Abd Allah ibn 'Amr ibn Al-'Aas and Zayd ibn Thabit were entrusted with the writing down of the Ahadith, treatises of the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam), laws, and letters etc. After the demise of the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) the importance of Hadith increased even further.

B. After The Demise of The Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam)
From the very beginning Muslims were interested in what the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) said and did. After the demise of the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) his Ahadith began to be disseminated along with the spread of Islam beyond the confines of Arabia. Newcomers to the fold of Islam were anxious to bear and learn about him. The Sahabah (Radhiallaahu Anhu) were given an eager hearing as they spoke about the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam). In this way a great number of Ahadith came to be disseminated.

At this juncture it should be noted that the Ahadith were constantly being memorised and repeatedly reported by the Companions (Radhiallaahu Anhu). In this domain the Ashab al-Suffah (Radhiallaahu Anhu) played a vital role. The most famous amongst them was Abu Hurayrah (Radhiallaahu Anhu) who chose to remain with the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) in order to learn everything that the Prophet did or said. However, he did not write down the Ahadith but is noted to have transmitted the largest number of Ahadith.

It should be pointed out here that the writing down of the Ahadith was not encouraged lest the Companions (Radhiallaahu Anhu) confuse the Hadith with the Qur'anic text. However, despite the reluctance on the part of some Companions (Radhiallaahu Anhu) to take part in the process of writing down the Ahadith, there were some who wrote them down, even during the lifetime of the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam). For example, 'Abd Allah ibn 'Amr (Radhiallaahu Anhu) complained to the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) that he had a problem in memorising what he beard from him, so the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) told him that he should seek the assistance of his right hand i.e. suggesting he should write them down. He called his collection al-Sahifah al-Sadiqah (The Truthful Tract).

Abu Hurayrah (Radhiallaahu Anhu), who did not write down the Ahadith but nevertheless chose 138 Hadith dealing with al-Akhlaq (Ethics and Morality) from the vast number of Ahadith he had memorised and dictated them to his student Hammam ibn Munabbih. Abu Hurayrah (Radhiallaahu Anhu) entitled this collection al-Sahifah al-Sahihah (The Correct Tract). This Sahifah has been edited by Dr Muhammad Hamidullah of Paris.

C. After the Companions (Radhiallaahu Anhu)
In the year 101/719 the Caliph 'Umar ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz (61101/680-719), fearing the loss of Ahadith, appointed learned scholars like Imaam Muhammad ibn Muslim ibn Shibab al-Zuhri (d.124/742) to compile Hadith literature. Al-Zuhri was a renown authority on Hadith. It is stated by Ibn Sa'd that al-Zuhri had collected a considerable number of Ahaadith with the result "that after his death several riding beasts were needed to transport his manuscripts.

'Umar ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz also wrote letters to scholars of Hadith all over the then Islamic world and appealed to them to embark upon the task of compiling the Ahadith that were then available in the form of books. Thus, through his initiative, the Ahadith that were scattered throughout the Muslim domain came to be systematically collected and preserved.

However, the first comprehensive and systematic compilation of Hadith was undertaken by Imam Malik ibn Anas (d.179/795). His compilation is entitled Al-Muwatta' (The Trodden Path), and contains Ahadith dealing with different legal topics. Thereafter other compilations of Hadith came into existence either in the form of Musnad or Musannaf collections.

Types of Compilations
There are two types of compilation of Hadith. The Musnad collection, is that in which Ahadith are arranged alphabetically under the names of the Sahabah (ra.) on whose authority these were reported. Among the earliest collection of the Musnad which are still in existence or in print are the Musnad of Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 164-241/780-855) and the Musnad of Abu Daud al-Tayaisi (d. 203/818).

As for the Musannaf collections, the Ahadith are recorded under various headings dealing with juridical subjects. Famous collections belonging to this category are Al-Sihah al-Sittah [The Six Authentic Books of Hadith], namely the compilations of Imaams Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Isma'il al-Bukhari (d.256/870), Muslim ibn al-Hajjaaj (d.261/874), Ahmad ibn Shu'ayb al-Nasa'i (d.302/914), Abu Da'ud al-Sijistani (d.200/835), Abu 'Isa Muhammad ibn 'Isa al-Tirmidhi (d.279/892), and Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammmad ibn Yazid ibn Majah al-Qazwini (d.273/886).

Fabrication of Hadith
Forty years after the Hijrah may be said to be the time when fabrication of Hadith came into existence. The claim made to the Khilafat (Caliphate) by Hadhrat 'Ally and Hadhrat Mu'awiyah (ra.) after the assassination of Hadrat 'Uthman (ra.) resulted in warfare and bloodshed. The Muslim Ummah (community) from then on came to be divided into factions. Each faction began to fabricate Hadith in order to strengthen its claim.

It may be appropriate to discuss, at this juncture, some of the avenues through which the fabrication Of Hadith came about:

A. Political Differences
The Shi'i strongly felt that the Caliphate should devolve to Ahl al-Bayt (Family of the Prophet) and thus held that Hadhrat 'Aliy (ra.) was the legitimate successor to the Prophet (s.a.w.s.). They therefore fabricated Hadith i.e. they attributed to the Prophet (s.a.w.s.) many sayings in which mention was made that Hadhrat 'Ali (ra.) should succeed him. Others who supported the claim of Hadhrat Mu'awiyah (r.a.) to the Caliphate were equally guilty of such fabrications.

B. Philosophical/Religious Differences
During the latter part of the Ummayyad Khilafat and throughout the 'Abbasid period a number of philosophical issues arose which were related to Iman (Faith) and Sifat (Attributes of Allah). This resulted in the creation of various philosophical sects such as the Qadariyah, Jabariyah, Mu'tazilah, etc. Scholars belonging to these different sects made deliberate changes to the texts or Isnad (chain of narrators) of certain Hadith, and fabricated other Hadith to lend support to their views.

C. Al-Qussas (storytellers)
It was common practice during early Islam for the people to be entertained by storytellers. These Qussas related their stories to the common people, who had a liking for amusing stories. Thus, their main object was to please the public who handsomely rewarded them. To this end, they invented many amusing anecdotes that appealed to the masses and in the process fabricated Hadith.

D. Al-Wai'zun (The Preachers)
The Wai'zun were alarmed at the spiritual bankruptcy of the masses. In order to rectify this they fabricated Hadith relating to morality in order to encourage people to do good deeds.

The Companions (ra.) became alarmed at the rate of fabrication of Hadith and laid down stringent rules for the reporting of Hadith, laying down the foundation for the development of the Science of Criticism of Hadith.

Thus, a concerted effort was made, during the early period of the defusion of Hadith, to curb the fabrication of Hadith.

By the second century Hijri the Science of Criticism of Hadith was fully developed. Every Hadith consists of two sections: the Isnad (chain of narrators) and the matn [text of the Hadith]. Specific rules were laid down by the muhaddithan (scholars of Hadith) in order to examine the reliability of the ruwat (narrators of the Ahadith) and this led to the compilation of their biographical data. Special investigation was also carried out in order to establish whether they were influenced by any particular religious view. Furthermore, a method was devised in order to scrutinise the matn (text) of the Hadith. The muhaddithan also devised a system by which the authenticity of the Ahadith could be assertained and laid down specific criteria for their acceptance.

'Ilm al-Asma al-Rijal
'Ilm Asma' al-Rijal (lit. the names of the men). This science deals with the personal details of the reporters of the Ahadith. The Isnad (chain of authorities) of each Hadith are closely examined in order to establish their integrity and reliability as reporters of the sayings of the Prophet (s.a.w.s.).

With this end in mind the following principles were laid down:

1. Each Hadith has to be traced back to the Prophet (s.a.w.s.) through a trustworthy chain of narrators. Thus their biographies were carefully examined.
2. The character of each reporter was studied carefully in order to ascertain his truthfulness and veracity.
3. If the reporter was noted to have a weak memory or was known to have spoken a lie his report was not excepted.
4. Every reporter had to furnish a complete chain narrators that were all traced back to the Prophet (s.a.w.s.).
5. The reporter was to be a reputable educationist as well as a Muhaddith. This was to ensure that he understood the correct implication of the Hadith.

Thus, biographical works in which minute details of each narrator were recorded came into existence. An important work in this field is that of Ibn Hatim al-Razi (d.327\938) entitled Kitab al-Jarh wa al- Ta'dil

'Ilm al-Jarh wa al-Ta'di-l
'Ilm al-Jarh wa al-Ta'dil (The Knowledge of Critism and Justification) was evolved to examine the veracity of the matn (text) of the Hadith. Several principles were laid down by the muhaddithun in this regard. Some of these principles are enumerated hereunder:

1. The report must be established. This means that it has to be ascertained whether it was said or done by the Prophet (s.a.w.s.).
2. Any Hadith which went contrary to the teachings of the Qur'an or Sunnah was rejected.
3. Any Hadith that contradicted al-Sunnah al-Mutawaatir (accepted practice of the Prophet) was rejected.
4. In the event that a particular Hadith was in conformity with the doctrine of any other sect other than that Ahl al-Sunnah wa al-Jama'ah (i.e. the Sunni Schools), it was not accepted.

Classification of Hadith
Scholars of Hadith have classified the Ahadith into two broad Islam & Muslims which are termed as Mutawatir and Ahad. Mutawatir Hadith is one which has been reported by a large number of narrators and therefore it is inconceivable that all of them could have lied.

As for the Ahad Hadith, the number of narrators are lesser than that of those reporting the Mutawatir Hadith. The Ahad Hadith is further divided into the following Islam & Muslims:

Al-Mashhur (well-known). This type of Hadith has been transmitted by two or more reporters at every stage.

Al-'Aziz (strong): A Hadith is said to be 'aziz if it happens to have been transmitted by at least two reporters in every generation.

Al-Gharib (Strange): A gharib Hadith is one in whose isnad there exists only a single narrator after the Sahabi.

The muhaddithun further classified the Hadith into two groups i.e. maqbul (accepted) and mardud (rejected). The Maqbul Hadith is further divided into the following two groups:

Al-Sahih (Sound or Authentic)
A Sahih Hadith is one whose reporters in its Isnad are all considered to be authentic, strong in memory and are all above any kind of criticism. The Ahadith which belong to this category are included in the compilations of Imams al-Bukhari and Muslim.

Hasan (Fair)
A Hadith is said to be hasan if it has been reported by such reporters whose truthfulness and trustworthiness do not match that of those who reported the Sahih Hadith. Most of the Ahadith which have been included in the compilation of Imam al-Tirmidhi are regarded to be of this category.

The Mardud Hadith is that type of Hadith which does not meet the criteria of Sahih and Hasan Hadith. Mardud Hadith is termed as da'if (i.e. weak). Da'if Hadith is classified into the following divisions:

Al-Marfu' is that type of Hadith whose Isnad is traced directly back to the Prophet (s.a.w.s) but there is a broken link in between.

Al-Mawquf is such that its isnad stops at the Sahabi only and does not go back to the Prophet (s.a.w.s.).

Al-Maqtu' is a Hadith which goes back to the tabi'i (successor to the Nabi) only.

Al-Mu'allaq (suspending) is such that one of the reporters in the beginning of its Isnad is majhul (unknown).

Al-Mursal (incomplete chain) is a Hadith in whose Isnad one of the reporters is unknown at the end.

Mishkat al-Masaabih

Cont'd ... Chapter 2

Source:  Jamiatul Ulama (Kwazulu-Natal)